The Lord of Universe Church is an international religious organization based in the Republic of China which is devoted to the "T'ienti Teachings" proclaimed by the late Lee Yü-chieh. It is a splinter religion from Tiender which is closely related to Confucianism and Taoism. It emphasizes chanting, traditional medicine, and a form of meditation which it calls "quiet sitting" in English.
Yü-chieh was born in Mainland China. He worked in the Kuomintang but left in 1958 to ensure political independence for his fledgling newspaper. In 1980 he was given permission by God to re-release the T'ienti Teachings, which emphasize nuclear disarmament and Chinese unification. His book, ''The Ultimate Realm'', was translated into Japanese and English under his guidance.
Saturday, September 27, 2008
Islam in Taiwan
Islam in Taiwan is a slowly growing religion with an estimated 100 converts annually. There are about 45,000 registered Muslims in Taiwan, as of 2007. There are 80,000 Indonesian Muslims working in Taiwan. There are six mosques throughout Taiwan, with the most notable being the Taipei Grand Mosque.
Islam originated in Hejaz and spread eastward to China as early as the 7th century AD. Muslim merchants married local Chinese women, creating a new Chinese ethnic group called the Hui people. Islam is known in Chinese as Huì Jiào though the term 伊斯蘭教 is becoming more popular. In China, there are some 20 million Muslims and it is believed to have first reached Taiwan in the 17th century when Muslim families from the southern coastal province of Fujian accompanied Koxinga on his invasion of Taiwan to oust the from the southern city of in 1661. These people are believed to be the first Muslim settlers on the island. Their descendants however became assimilated into Taiwanese society and adopted the local customs and religions. According to Professor Lien Ya Tang in his book ''History of Taiwan'' 《臺灣通史》 , there were few muslims on the island most of whom were from other provinces in China. There was no spread of Islam and no mosques were built .
The second wave of Muslim migrants occurred during the Chinese Civil War in the 20th century when around 20,000 Muslim families fled mainland China with the Kuomintang to Taiwan in 1949. Many of them were soldiers and government employees at the time and came from provinces were Islam is strong such as Yunnan, Xinjiang, Ningxia, and Gansu . During the 1950s, contact between Muslims and Han Chinese were limited due to differences in custom. The Muslims were largely dependent on each other through the ummah that met regularly in a house on Lishui Street in Taipei. However, by the 1960s when Muslims realized that returning to mainland China would be unlikely and out of professional need, contact with Han Chinese became more frequent though there was still a considerable degree of interdependence within the ummah. Since the 1980s, thousands of Muslims from Myanmar and Thailand have migrated to Taiwan in search of a better life. They are descendants of soldiers that fled Yunnan when the communists took over mainland China.
The majority of Taiwanese Muslims today are relatively recent converts, mostly women, who have married mainlander Muslims. Today there are some 53,000 Taiwanese Muslims and a further 80,000 Indonesian workers making the current total just over 140,000 Muslims living in Taiwan.
A directed study of the Muslim population of Taiwan by Jennan Al-Hamdouni will soon be attached to this document.
There are a total of six mosques throughout Taiwan :
* Kaohsiung Mosque
* Long Gang Mosque , in Jhongli
* Taichung Mosque
* Tainan Mosque
* Taipei Cultural Mosque, owned by the Chinese Muslim Youth League
* Taipei Grand Mosque, owned by the Chinese Muslim Association
The eastward spread of Islam
Islam originated in Hejaz and spread eastward to China as early as the 7th century AD. Muslim merchants married local Chinese women, creating a new Chinese ethnic group called the Hui people. Islam is known in Chinese as Huì Jiào though the term 伊斯蘭教 is becoming more popular. In China, there are some 20 million Muslims and it is believed to have first reached Taiwan in the 17th century when Muslim families from the southern coastal province of Fujian accompanied Koxinga on his invasion of Taiwan to oust the from the southern city of in 1661. These people are believed to be the first Muslim settlers on the island. Their descendants however became assimilated into Taiwanese society and adopted the local customs and religions. According to Professor Lien Ya Tang in his book ''History of Taiwan'' 《臺灣通史》 , there were few muslims on the island most of whom were from other provinces in China. There was no spread of Islam and no mosques were built .
The second wave of Muslim migrants occurred during the Chinese Civil War in the 20th century when around 20,000 Muslim families fled mainland China with the Kuomintang to Taiwan in 1949. Many of them were soldiers and government employees at the time and came from provinces were Islam is strong such as Yunnan, Xinjiang, Ningxia, and Gansu . During the 1950s, contact between Muslims and Han Chinese were limited due to differences in custom. The Muslims were largely dependent on each other through the ummah that met regularly in a house on Lishui Street in Taipei. However, by the 1960s when Muslims realized that returning to mainland China would be unlikely and out of professional need, contact with Han Chinese became more frequent though there was still a considerable degree of interdependence within the ummah. Since the 1980s, thousands of Muslims from Myanmar and Thailand have migrated to Taiwan in search of a better life. They are descendants of soldiers that fled Yunnan when the communists took over mainland China.
The majority of Taiwanese Muslims today are relatively recent converts, mostly women, who have married mainlander Muslims. Today there are some 53,000 Taiwanese Muslims and a further 80,000 Indonesian workers making the current total just over 140,000 Muslims living in Taiwan.
A directed study of the Muslim population of Taiwan by Jennan Al-Hamdouni will soon be attached to this document.
Mosques
There are a total of six mosques throughout Taiwan :
* Kaohsiung Mosque
* Long Gang Mosque , in Jhongli
* Taichung Mosque
* Tainan Mosque
* Taipei Cultural Mosque, owned by the Chinese Muslim Youth League
* Taipei Grand Mosque, owned by the Chinese Muslim Association
I-Kuan Tao
I-Kuan Tao, also Yi Guan Dao, or usually initialized as IKT is a new religious movement that originated in twentieth-century China. It incorporates much older elements from Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism, and recognizes the validity of non-Chinese religious traditions such as Christianity and Islam as well. For this reason it is often classified as a syncretistic or syncretic sect, along with other similar religions in the Way of Former Heaven family.
I-Kuan Tao flourished in Taiwan starting in the 1970s. Currently, it is the third most popular faith in Taiwan . It claims two million members, and in overseas Chinese communities around the world. A survey in 2002 showed that there were 845,000 followers with over 3,100 temples. In the People's Republic of China, I-Kuan Tao and the other four Way of Former Heaven religious groups remain banned as illegal secret societies, as was the case in Taiwan until 1987.
The World I-Kuan Tao Headquarters was established in 1996, and is situated in the United States, in El Monte, California.
*''I-kuan'' means something like "penetrating with one", "consistency" or "one unity." This term is derived from a passage of Analects where Confucius said that his way is that of "an all-pervading Truth" .
*''Tao'' has many meanings, including "way", "path" or "Truth". When used next to the name of some Chinese religions, it means "religion." For example, ''Tai Ping Tao'' , a renegade religious group in ancient China which had directly led to the decline of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The same word Tao has been used by the Taoist and Confucian traditions to describe the broad patterns of the universe, life, and humanity as well as ritual or religious manifestation.
Because of the name, I-Kuan Tao is often assumed to be Taoist, and Taoism does indeed form part of its heritage. However its history, teachings, practices, and leadership are different from those of either the "elite" forms of Taoist religion or the Chinese folk religion of the masses. In the same way, I-Kuan Tao differs from, and yet also resembles, Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism.
Because the group was banned in Taiwan in the 70s and 80s, it manifested in different names such as The Confucius-Mencius Society, The Morality Society, etc. They also called themselves ''Zhenli Tiandao'' .
*''Ming Ming Shang Ti'' , "Clear Emperor on High" — analogous to the Judeo-Christian God. Also referred to as ''Wuji Laomu'' , the "Ancient Mother of Limitless Heaven". She is the high being who transcends all the lesser gods of the Chinese pantheon. The roughly translated full name of this deity is ''The Bright Illustrious Almighty Eternal Pure Tranquil Void Utmost Sacred and Revered, The Lord of all beings in the entire Universe''.
*Maitreya , the next to succeed the historical Sakyamuni Buddha and who has come already according to I-Kuan Tao; Maitreya was reincarnated as Lu Zhong Yi.
*Guan Yin, the Bodhisattva of Mercy. In I-Kuan Tao, she is referred as ''The Ancient Buddha of the South Sea''
*Ji Gong, , known as Living Buddha Ji Gong a Zen Buddhist monk revered as a reincarnation of an Arhat. Zhang Tian Ran, is believed to be the reincarnation.
*''Yue Hui'', is the Moon Wisdom Bodhisattva who was reincarnated as Sun Su Zhen, the matriarch of I-Kuan Tao.
*Guan Yu , an apotheosized Chinese general from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms who is commonly worshipped in Chinese temples, both Buddhist and Taoist. He is a Heavenly Guardian against evil. I-Kuan Tao honors him as the commander of the precepts together with Lü Dongbin, Zhang Fei and Yue Fei.
*Lu Dongbin is a Chinese deity/Immortal.. Lǚ Dòngbīn is the most widely known of the group of deities known as the Eight Immortals.
*Lu Zhong Yi , the 17th Patriarch of I-Kuan Tao. He was believed to be the incarnation of Maitreya. He attained the title in 1905 when God mandated him to continue the Tao lineage.
*Zhang Tian Ran , made the name I-Kuan Tao official, was the 18th patriarch. He was believed to be the incarnation of Ji Gong, and became Tianran Ancient Buddha after his passing.
*Sun Su Zhen , the I-Kuan Tao 18th matriarch and the wife in name to Zhang Tian Ran. She was believed to be the incarnation of Yue Hui Bodhisattva and became the Holy Mother of the Chinese after her passing.
Within the broad category of Chinese religion we may distinguish between folk practices which neither expect clear membership commitments nor make clear demands; and on the other hand, various sectarian movements which enjoy a clearer identity, and at the same time a weaker influence over the wider society. The folk religious practices are absorbed almost unconsciously, from childhood. Sectarian religious identity must be voluntarily chosen. Such sectarian identity might be Buddhist, Christian, or any of the religious movements that originated within the Chinese cultural sphere.
Some sectarian religious movements, such as Buddhism may endure for centuries, and become regulated by the state. Others are more ephemeral, such as the family of Buddhist movements lumped together under the name of White Lotus. These were loosely inspired by the vegetarian, millennarian, syncretistic religion of Manichaeism, which survived in China — and assimilated to Chinese culture — a full thousand years after it had disappeared in the West. The White Lotus sects tended to be suppressed by the state, but passed on certain influences to later groups such as the Hsien Tien sects.
Philip Clart gave this following summary of I-Kuan Tao's history:
:"Also called T'ien-tao . Founded in 1930 by the "eighteenth patriarch" Chang T'ien-jan in the city of Chi-nan, the capital of Shantung province, the sect in 1934 moved its centre of activity to T'ien-chin and from there spread rapidly all over mainland China. After Chang T'ien-jan's death in 1947, the sect's nominal leadership passed into the hands of the Matriarch Madame Sun Hui-ming. Effectively, however, the sect split up into a number of separate branches that continued to develop more or less independently. There thus exists today no independent leadership for the sect, which has become a family of closely related yet autonomous branch associations."
The official history from I-Kuan Tao stated that I-Kuan Tao or Tao can be divided into 3 periods. The first is The early 18 Eastern line, originated from the mythical figure Fu Xi, the creator of the Bagua. This is followed by other mythical and historical figures such as Shen Nong, Huang Di , Laozi the author of the ''Dao De Jing'', Confucius, and the last is Mencius. Then it is said because of the turmoil period in China, Laozi brought Tao to India and initiated Sakyamuni Buddha.
The second lineage called the twenty-eight western lineage begins. This followed the Buddhist ''Ch'an'' or Zen lineage from Sakyamuni to Mahakasyapa, and finally Bodhidharma. It is said that Bodhidharma brought the Tao back to China to begin the Later eighteen eastern lineages. Following the Zen lineage from Bodhidharma to the sixth and officially last patriarch of Chinese Ch'an, Huineng. The lineage then continues with sectarian figures.
See
Research pointed that it stemmed from ''Xiantiandao'' or the Way of Former Heaven. The founder of Xiantiandao is Huang Dehui . The I-Kuan Tao and the Xiantiandao considered him as the ninth patriarch. Findings from the Ching dynasty documents mentioned that Wang Jueyi , the fifteenth patriarch, propagated another religious teaching; ''Sanjiao Yiguan Zhizhi'' in the 1850s.
However, I-Kuan Tao started to flourish in China during the leadership of Zhang Tian Ran. During the leadership of Zhang Tian Ran, I-Kuan Tao spread from Shandong to many cities in North, Central and Southern China. Zhang died shortly during the civil war in 1947. After Zhang's death, Madame Sun Su Zhen succeeded him as matriarch of I-Kuan Tao.
However, according to I-Kuan Tao believers, Madame Sun was not really Zhang's wife. At a chaotic time in China, coupled with the traditional thinking common among Chinese communities at that period, it was inappropriate for a man and a woman who had no family connection to travel together. In order to silence the critics and misconceptions of the public, they declared that they were married to each another. They were married in name but were never a real husband and wife.
When communism took over in China, many I-Kuan Tao followers and leaders departed to Hong Kong and Taiwan. In 1951, I-Kuan Tao was banned in the PRC and many of the followers and leaders were persecuted. Sun Su Zhen and other I-Kuan Tao leaders left China, and arrived in Hong Kong. Sun then moved to Taiwan in 1954, where she lived as a virtual recluse under the care of followers such as Wang Hao De until her death in 1975.
Zhang Pei-Cheng, the current director of I-Kuan Tao, one of many who brought the faith's teachings to Taiwan in 1947. Today, the sect claims 50,000 worship groups and supports several schools including Sung Nien University . Its members operate many of Taiwan's vegetarian restaurants. One of its high profile members is Chang Yung-fa, the president and founder of the Evergreen Marine Corporation or Evergreen Group who is also the chief leader of a Xingyi sub-division. The company is a well known proponent of I-Kuan Tao.
I-Kuan Tao represents a moralistic society, with objective to help save all human from the last calamity. The members are encouraged to follow morality practices such as:
*The "five ethics" and "eight virtues"
*Vegetarianism, and abstinence from alcohol and tobacco
*Initiation of new member into "Tao" .
*Daily prayer
*Attending religious classes, ceremony or Moralistic Lecture, which also include Ceremony of Offerings, Prayers, etc.
*Chanting scriptures
Followers of I-Kuan Tao are encouraged to help bring and initiate new members, practice vegetarianism and open temples or shrines at their homes.
Unlike other faiths, I-Kuan Tao does not have a single organization. This is because after the death of Zhang Tian Ran and the escape from communism in China, many of the followers found their own way to Hong Kong and Taiwan. They established their own groups, mainly following their ancestral temples' names from China, spreading the teachings of I-Kuan Tao. There is a consensus from the followers of Zhang Tian Ran and Sun to form the I Kuan Tao headquarters, recognizing the so called "eighteen groups".
Apart from these eighteen, there is an independent group started by the wife and the son of Zhang Tian Ran, Madame Liu and Mr Zhang YingYu, which does not have many followers. A large splinter group, also recognized by the government of Taiwan but not acknowledged by I-Kuan Tao, is that founded by Wang Hao De, former aide to Sun, who established his own sect called the Great Tao of Maitreya.
There are many western studies on this movement the first comprehensive study is by David K. Jordan and described in his book "The Flying Phoenix". Recent studies include Philip Clart. And a thesis by Jo Swinnen from Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium. A book by Meir Shahar on Ji Gong titled "Crazy Ji" also has a section on I-Kuan Tao.
see also:
Robin Munro: Syncretic Sects and Secret Societies – Revival in the 1980s. In: Chinese Sociology and Anthropology Summer 1989/Vol. 21, No. 4
Song Guangyu 宋光宇: Tiandao Gouchen , 2. Ed. Taipei 1983
Thomas Weyrauch: Yiguan Dao – Chinas Volksreligion im Untergrund. Heuchelheim 2006. ISBN 3-938946-02-4
I-Kuan Tao flourished in Taiwan starting in the 1970s. Currently, it is the third most popular faith in Taiwan . It claims two million members, and in overseas Chinese communities around the world. A survey in 2002 showed that there were 845,000 followers with over 3,100 temples. In the People's Republic of China, I-Kuan Tao and the other four Way of Former Heaven religious groups remain banned as illegal secret societies, as was the case in Taiwan until 1987.
The World I-Kuan Tao Headquarters was established in 1996, and is situated in the United States, in El Monte, California.
The name
*''I-kuan'' means something like "penetrating with one", "consistency" or "one unity." This term is derived from a passage of Analects where Confucius said that his way is that of "an all-pervading Truth" .
*''Tao'' has many meanings, including "way", "path" or "Truth". When used next to the name of some Chinese religions, it means "religion." For example, ''Tai Ping Tao'' , a renegade religious group in ancient China which had directly led to the decline of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The same word Tao has been used by the Taoist and Confucian traditions to describe the broad patterns of the universe, life, and humanity as well as ritual or religious manifestation.
Because of the name, I-Kuan Tao is often assumed to be Taoist, and Taoism does indeed form part of its heritage. However its history, teachings, practices, and leadership are different from those of either the "elite" forms of Taoist religion or the Chinese folk religion of the masses. In the same way, I-Kuan Tao differs from, and yet also resembles, Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism.
Because the group was banned in Taiwan in the 70s and 80s, it manifested in different names such as The Confucius-Mencius Society, The Morality Society, etc. They also called themselves ''Zhenli Tiandao'' .
Deities and teachers
Deities
*''Ming Ming Shang Ti'' , "Clear Emperor on High" — analogous to the Judeo-Christian God. Also referred to as ''Wuji Laomu'' , the "Ancient Mother of Limitless Heaven". She is the high being who transcends all the lesser gods of the Chinese pantheon. The roughly translated full name of this deity is ''The Bright Illustrious Almighty Eternal Pure Tranquil Void Utmost Sacred and Revered, The Lord of all beings in the entire Universe''.
*Maitreya , the next to succeed the historical Sakyamuni Buddha and who has come already according to I-Kuan Tao; Maitreya was reincarnated as Lu Zhong Yi.
*Guan Yin, the Bodhisattva of Mercy. In I-Kuan Tao, she is referred as ''The Ancient Buddha of the South Sea''
*Ji Gong, , known as Living Buddha Ji Gong a Zen Buddhist monk revered as a reincarnation of an Arhat. Zhang Tian Ran, is believed to be the reincarnation.
*''Yue Hui'', is the Moon Wisdom Bodhisattva who was reincarnated as Sun Su Zhen, the matriarch of I-Kuan Tao.
*Guan Yu , an apotheosized Chinese general from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms who is commonly worshipped in Chinese temples, both Buddhist and Taoist. He is a Heavenly Guardian against evil. I-Kuan Tao honors him as the commander of the precepts together with Lü Dongbin, Zhang Fei and Yue Fei.
*Lu Dongbin is a Chinese deity/Immortal.. Lǚ Dòngbīn is the most widely known of the group of deities known as the Eight Immortals.
Teachers
*Lu Zhong Yi , the 17th Patriarch of I-Kuan Tao. He was believed to be the incarnation of Maitreya. He attained the title in 1905 when God mandated him to continue the Tao lineage.
*Zhang Tian Ran , made the name I-Kuan Tao official, was the 18th patriarch. He was believed to be the incarnation of Ji Gong, and became Tianran Ancient Buddha after his passing.
*Sun Su Zhen , the I-Kuan Tao 18th matriarch and the wife in name to Zhang Tian Ran. She was believed to be the incarnation of Yue Hui Bodhisattva and became the Holy Mother of the Chinese after her passing.
History
Within the broad category of Chinese religion we may distinguish between folk practices which neither expect clear membership commitments nor make clear demands; and on the other hand, various sectarian movements which enjoy a clearer identity, and at the same time a weaker influence over the wider society. The folk religious practices are absorbed almost unconsciously, from childhood. Sectarian religious identity must be voluntarily chosen. Such sectarian identity might be Buddhist, Christian, or any of the religious movements that originated within the Chinese cultural sphere.
Some sectarian religious movements, such as Buddhism may endure for centuries, and become regulated by the state. Others are more ephemeral, such as the family of Buddhist movements lumped together under the name of White Lotus. These were loosely inspired by the vegetarian, millennarian, syncretistic religion of Manichaeism, which survived in China — and assimilated to Chinese culture — a full thousand years after it had disappeared in the West. The White Lotus sects tended to be suppressed by the state, but passed on certain influences to later groups such as the Hsien Tien sects.
Philip Clart gave this following summary of I-Kuan Tao's history:
:"Also called T'ien-tao . Founded in 1930 by the "eighteenth patriarch" Chang T'ien-jan in the city of Chi-nan, the capital of Shantung province, the sect in 1934 moved its centre of activity to T'ien-chin and from there spread rapidly all over mainland China. After Chang T'ien-jan's death in 1947, the sect's nominal leadership passed into the hands of the Matriarch Madame Sun Hui-ming. Effectively, however, the sect split up into a number of separate branches that continued to develop more or less independently. There thus exists today no independent leadership for the sect, which has become a family of closely related yet autonomous branch associations."
Official history
The official history from I-Kuan Tao stated that I-Kuan Tao or Tao can be divided into 3 periods. The first is The early 18 Eastern line, originated from the mythical figure Fu Xi, the creator of the Bagua. This is followed by other mythical and historical figures such as Shen Nong, Huang Di , Laozi the author of the ''Dao De Jing'', Confucius, and the last is Mencius. Then it is said because of the turmoil period in China, Laozi brought Tao to India and initiated Sakyamuni Buddha.
The second lineage called the twenty-eight western lineage begins. This followed the Buddhist ''Ch'an'' or Zen lineage from Sakyamuni to Mahakasyapa, and finally Bodhidharma. It is said that Bodhidharma brought the Tao back to China to begin the Later eighteen eastern lineages. Following the Zen lineage from Bodhidharma to the sixth and officially last patriarch of Chinese Ch'an, Huineng. The lineage then continues with sectarian figures.
See
Research pointed that it stemmed from ''Xiantiandao'' or the Way of Former Heaven. The founder of Xiantiandao is Huang Dehui . The I-Kuan Tao and the Xiantiandao considered him as the ninth patriarch. Findings from the Ching dynasty documents mentioned that Wang Jueyi , the fifteenth patriarch, propagated another religious teaching; ''Sanjiao Yiguan Zhizhi'' in the 1850s.
However, I-Kuan Tao started to flourish in China during the leadership of Zhang Tian Ran. During the leadership of Zhang Tian Ran, I-Kuan Tao spread from Shandong to many cities in North, Central and Southern China. Zhang died shortly during the civil war in 1947. After Zhang's death, Madame Sun Su Zhen succeeded him as matriarch of I-Kuan Tao.
However, according to I-Kuan Tao believers, Madame Sun was not really Zhang's wife. At a chaotic time in China, coupled with the traditional thinking common among Chinese communities at that period, it was inappropriate for a man and a woman who had no family connection to travel together. In order to silence the critics and misconceptions of the public, they declared that they were married to each another. They were married in name but were never a real husband and wife.
When communism took over in China, many I-Kuan Tao followers and leaders departed to Hong Kong and Taiwan. In 1951, I-Kuan Tao was banned in the PRC and many of the followers and leaders were persecuted. Sun Su Zhen and other I-Kuan Tao leaders left China, and arrived in Hong Kong. Sun then moved to Taiwan in 1954, where she lived as a virtual recluse under the care of followers such as Wang Hao De until her death in 1975.
The present
Zhang Pei-Cheng, the current director of I-Kuan Tao, one of many who brought the faith's teachings to Taiwan in 1947. Today, the sect claims 50,000 worship groups and supports several schools including Sung Nien University . Its members operate many of Taiwan's vegetarian restaurants. One of its high profile members is Chang Yung-fa, the president and founder of the Evergreen Marine Corporation or Evergreen Group who is also the chief leader of a Xingyi sub-division. The company is a well known proponent of I-Kuan Tao.
Practices
I-Kuan Tao represents a moralistic society, with objective to help save all human from the last calamity. The members are encouraged to follow morality practices such as:
*The "five ethics" and "eight virtues"
*Vegetarianism, and abstinence from alcohol and tobacco
*Initiation of new member into "Tao" .
*Daily prayer
*Attending religious classes, ceremony or Moralistic Lecture, which also include Ceremony of Offerings, Prayers, etc.
*Chanting scriptures
Followers of I-Kuan Tao are encouraged to help bring and initiate new members, practice vegetarianism and open temples or shrines at their homes.
Structure
Unlike other faiths, I-Kuan Tao does not have a single organization. This is because after the death of Zhang Tian Ran and the escape from communism in China, many of the followers found their own way to Hong Kong and Taiwan. They established their own groups, mainly following their ancestral temples' names from China, spreading the teachings of I-Kuan Tao. There is a consensus from the followers of Zhang Tian Ran and Sun to form the I Kuan Tao headquarters, recognizing the so called "eighteen groups".
Apart from these eighteen, there is an independent group started by the wife and the son of Zhang Tian Ran, Madame Liu and Mr Zhang YingYu, which does not have many followers. A large splinter group, also recognized by the government of Taiwan but not acknowledged by I-Kuan Tao, is that founded by Wang Hao De, former aide to Sun, who established his own sect called the Great Tao of Maitreya.
Literature
There are many western studies on this movement the first comprehensive study is by David K. Jordan and described in his book "The Flying Phoenix". Recent studies include Philip Clart. And a thesis by Jo Swinnen from Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium. A book by Meir Shahar on Ji Gong titled "Crazy Ji" also has a section on I-Kuan Tao.
see also:
Robin Munro: Syncretic Sects and Secret Societies – Revival in the 1980s. In: Chinese Sociology and Anthropology Summer 1989/Vol. 21, No. 4
Song Guangyu 宋光宇: Tiandao Gouchen , 2. Ed. Taipei 1983
Thomas Weyrauch: Yiguan Dao – Chinas Volksreligion im Untergrund. Heuchelheim 2006. ISBN 3-938946-02-4
Freedom of religion in Taiwan
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the authorities generally respected this right in practice. There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom by the authorities during the period covered by this report, and the authorities' policies continued to contribute to the generally free practice of religion. There were no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice.
Taiwan has an area of 13,800 square miles and a population of 23 million. The 2006 Government Information Office Yearbook, the Religious Affairs Section of the Ministry of the Interior states that 35 percent of the population consider themselves Buddhist and 33 percent Taoist. While the overwhelming majority of religious adherents are either Buddhist or Taoist, many people also consider themselves both Buddhist and Taoist.
In addition to practicing organized religion, many persons also followed a collection of beliefs deeply ingrained in Chinese culture that can be termed "traditional Chinese folk religion." These beliefs may include some aspects of shamanism, ancestor worship, belief in ghosts and other spirits, and animism. Researchers and academics estimate that as much as 80 percent of the population believes in some form of traditional folk religion. Such folk religions may overlap with an individual's belief in Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, or other traditional Chinese religions.
Traditional Chinese religions with adherents constituting less than 5 percent of the population include: I Kuan Tao, Tien Ti Chiao , Tien Te Chiao , Li-ism, Hsuan Yuan Chiao , Tian Li Chiao , Universe Maitreya Emperor Religion, Hai Tze Tao, Confucianism, Zhonghua Sheng Chiao , Da Yi Chiao , Pre-cosmic Salvationism, and Huang Chung Chiao .
There also may be an overlap between practitioners of Buddhism, Taoism, and other traditional Chinese religions with those of Falun Gong, which is registered as a civic, rather than religious, organization. In Taiwan, Falun Gong is generally considered a spiritual movement and not a religion. The leading proponent of Falun Gong in Taiwan reports that membership exceeds 500,000 and continues to grow rapidly.
In addition to traditional Chinese religions, small percentages of the population consider themselves Protestant, Roman Catholic, or Sunni Muslim. Several foreign missionary religious groups are also present. The Church of Scientology, the Baha'i, the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Mahikari Religion, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and the Unification Church are registered. Other Christian denominations present include Presbyterians, the True Jesus Church, Baptists, Lutherans, Seventh-day Adventists, and Episcopalians. Approximately 70 percent of the indigenous population of 475,000 Aborigines is Christian. There are also a small number of adherents of Judaism in Taiwan, mainly expatriates.
While the authorities do not collect or independently verify statistics on religious affiliation, they maintain registration statistics voluntarily reported by religious organizations. Officials from the MOI Religious Affairs Section believe these voluntarily reported statistics significantly understate the number of people in Taiwan who adhere to religious beliefs and participate in some form of religious activities. The MOI Religious Affairs Section estimates that approximately 50 percent of the population regularly participates in some form of organized religious practice, as distinguished from "traditional Chinese folk religions," and an estimated 14 percent of the population is atheist.
Religious beliefs cross political and geographical lines. Members of the political leadership practice various faiths.
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the authorities generally respected this right in practice. Authorities at all levels sought to protect this right in full, and did not tolerate its abuse, either by official or private actors. There is no state religion.
Although registration is not mandatory, 26 religious organizations have registered with the MOI's Religious Affairs Section. Religious organizations may register with the central authorities through their island-wide associations under the Temple Management Law, the Civic Organizations Law, or the chapter of the Civil Code that governs foundations and associations. While individual places of worship may register with local authorities, many choose not to do so and operate as the personal property of their leaders. Registered religious organizations operate on a tax-free basis and are required to submit annual reports of their financial operations. The only ramification for nonregistration is the forfeiture of the tax advantages that are available for registered religious organizations. There were no reports that the authorities sought to deny registration to new religions during the period covered by this report.
Religious organizations are permitted to operate schools, but compulsory religious instruction is not permitted in any public or private elementary, middle, or high school accredited by the Ministry of Education . High schools accredited by the MOE, while not allowed to require religious instruction, may provide elective courses in religious studies, provided such courses do not promote certain religious beliefs over others. Universities and research institutions may have religious studies departments. Before 2004, legislation barred religious schools and theological institutes from applying for MOE accreditation, and the MOE did not recognize university-level degrees granted by these types of schools. In March 2004, the Legislative Yuan revised the Private Schools Act authorized the MOE to establish an accreditation process for university-level religious education institutions supported by religious organizations or private funds. In April 2006, the MOE promulgated regulations governing the accreditation process. In August 2006, the MOE accredited its first seminary, the Dharma Drum Buddhist College.
The authorities' policies and practices contributed to the generally free practice of religion.
There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees in Taiwan.
There were no reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned to the United States.
The MOI promotes interfaith understanding among religious groups by sponsoring symposiums or helping to defray the expenses of privately sponsored symposiums on religious issues. The MOI also publishes and updates an introduction to major religious beliefs and groups based on material provided by the groups. This introduction is also available on the Internet. In May 2006, the MOI invited some 100 leaders from religious organizations to participate in a two-day tour of outstanding social services organizations operated by religious charities, to foster cooperation among organizations with similar social welfare goals. In August 2006, the MOI held its annual ceremony to honor religious groups for their contributions to public service, social welfare, and social harmony. Some 170 different organizations and individuals were recognized. In January, 2007, President Chen personally congratulated local Muslims who had completed a pilgrimage to Mecca, and praised Taiwan's Muslim Association for promoting frequent exchanges between Taiwan and the Islamic world. President Chen also credited practicing Muslims on Taiwan for helping to create a richer, more diverse culture on the island.
There were no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice. Prominent societal leaders also took positive steps to promote religious tolerance. For instance, the Taiwan Council for Religion and Peace, the China Religious Believers Association, and the Taiwan Religious Association are private organizations that promote greater understanding and tolerance among adherents of different religions. These associations and various religious groups occasionally sponsor symposiums to promote mutual understanding. The Taiwan Conference on Religion and Peace sponsors summer seminars every year to help college students understand the practice of major religions in Taiwan. The 2006 seminar was held at the Tian Di Jiao temple in Nantou County, and more than 200 college students attended. The Unification Church plans to host the 2007 seminar in Tamshui Town in Taipei County.
Religious demography
Taiwan has an area of 13,800 square miles and a population of 23 million. The 2006 Government Information Office Yearbook, the Religious Affairs Section of the Ministry of the Interior states that 35 percent of the population consider themselves Buddhist and 33 percent Taoist. While the overwhelming majority of religious adherents are either Buddhist or Taoist, many people also consider themselves both Buddhist and Taoist.
In addition to practicing organized religion, many persons also followed a collection of beliefs deeply ingrained in Chinese culture that can be termed "traditional Chinese folk religion." These beliefs may include some aspects of shamanism, ancestor worship, belief in ghosts and other spirits, and animism. Researchers and academics estimate that as much as 80 percent of the population believes in some form of traditional folk religion. Such folk religions may overlap with an individual's belief in Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, or other traditional Chinese religions.
Traditional Chinese religions with adherents constituting less than 5 percent of the population include: I Kuan Tao, Tien Ti Chiao , Tien Te Chiao , Li-ism, Hsuan Yuan Chiao , Tian Li Chiao , Universe Maitreya Emperor Religion, Hai Tze Tao, Confucianism, Zhonghua Sheng Chiao , Da Yi Chiao , Pre-cosmic Salvationism, and Huang Chung Chiao .
There also may be an overlap between practitioners of Buddhism, Taoism, and other traditional Chinese religions with those of Falun Gong, which is registered as a civic, rather than religious, organization. In Taiwan, Falun Gong is generally considered a spiritual movement and not a religion. The leading proponent of Falun Gong in Taiwan reports that membership exceeds 500,000 and continues to grow rapidly.
In addition to traditional Chinese religions, small percentages of the population consider themselves Protestant, Roman Catholic, or Sunni Muslim. Several foreign missionary religious groups are also present. The Church of Scientology, the Baha'i, the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Mahikari Religion, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and the Unification Church are registered. Other Christian denominations present include Presbyterians, the True Jesus Church, Baptists, Lutherans, Seventh-day Adventists, and Episcopalians. Approximately 70 percent of the indigenous population of 475,000 Aborigines is Christian. There are also a small number of adherents of Judaism in Taiwan, mainly expatriates.
While the authorities do not collect or independently verify statistics on religious affiliation, they maintain registration statistics voluntarily reported by religious organizations. Officials from the MOI Religious Affairs Section believe these voluntarily reported statistics significantly understate the number of people in Taiwan who adhere to religious beliefs and participate in some form of religious activities. The MOI Religious Affairs Section estimates that approximately 50 percent of the population regularly participates in some form of organized religious practice, as distinguished from "traditional Chinese folk religions," and an estimated 14 percent of the population is atheist.
Religious beliefs cross political and geographical lines. Members of the political leadership practice various faiths.
Status of religious freedom
Legal and policy framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the authorities generally respected this right in practice. Authorities at all levels sought to protect this right in full, and did not tolerate its abuse, either by official or private actors. There is no state religion.
Although registration is not mandatory, 26 religious organizations have registered with the MOI's Religious Affairs Section. Religious organizations may register with the central authorities through their island-wide associations under the Temple Management Law, the Civic Organizations Law, or the chapter of the Civil Code that governs foundations and associations. While individual places of worship may register with local authorities, many choose not to do so and operate as the personal property of their leaders. Registered religious organizations operate on a tax-free basis and are required to submit annual reports of their financial operations. The only ramification for nonregistration is the forfeiture of the tax advantages that are available for registered religious organizations. There were no reports that the authorities sought to deny registration to new religions during the period covered by this report.
Religious organizations are permitted to operate schools, but compulsory religious instruction is not permitted in any public or private elementary, middle, or high school accredited by the Ministry of Education . High schools accredited by the MOE, while not allowed to require religious instruction, may provide elective courses in religious studies, provided such courses do not promote certain religious beliefs over others. Universities and research institutions may have religious studies departments. Before 2004, legislation barred religious schools and theological institutes from applying for MOE accreditation, and the MOE did not recognize university-level degrees granted by these types of schools. In March 2004, the Legislative Yuan revised the Private Schools Act authorized the MOE to establish an accreditation process for university-level religious education institutions supported by religious organizations or private funds. In April 2006, the MOE promulgated regulations governing the accreditation process. In August 2006, the MOE accredited its first seminary, the Dharma Drum Buddhist College.
Restrictions on religious freedom
The authorities' policies and practices contributed to the generally free practice of religion.
There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees in Taiwan.
Forced religious conversion
There were no reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned to the United States.
Improvements and Positive Developments in Respect for Religious Freedom
The MOI promotes interfaith understanding among religious groups by sponsoring symposiums or helping to defray the expenses of privately sponsored symposiums on religious issues. The MOI also publishes and updates an introduction to major religious beliefs and groups based on material provided by the groups. This introduction is also available on the Internet. In May 2006, the MOI invited some 100 leaders from religious organizations to participate in a two-day tour of outstanding social services organizations operated by religious charities, to foster cooperation among organizations with similar social welfare goals. In August 2006, the MOI held its annual ceremony to honor religious groups for their contributions to public service, social welfare, and social harmony. Some 170 different organizations and individuals were recognized. In January, 2007, President Chen personally congratulated local Muslims who had completed a pilgrimage to Mecca, and praised Taiwan's Muslim Association for promoting frequent exchanges between Taiwan and the Islamic world. President Chen also credited practicing Muslims on Taiwan for helping to create a richer, more diverse culture on the island.
Societal abuses and discrimination
There were no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice. Prominent societal leaders also took positive steps to promote religious tolerance. For instance, the Taiwan Council for Religion and Peace, the China Religious Believers Association, and the Taiwan Religious Association are private organizations that promote greater understanding and tolerance among adherents of different religions. These associations and various religious groups occasionally sponsor symposiums to promote mutual understanding. The Taiwan Conference on Religion and Peace sponsors summer seminars every year to help college students understand the practice of major religions in Taiwan. The 2006 seminar was held at the Tian Di Jiao temple in Nantou County, and more than 200 college students attended. The Unification Church plans to host the 2007 seminar in Tamshui Town in Taipei County.
Chung Tai Shan
Chung Tai Shan 中台山 is a Taiwan-based Buddhist monastic order founded by the Venerable Master Wei Chueh in 1987. The headquarters monastery itself, ''Chung Tai Chan Monastery 中台禪寺'', completed on September 2001, is one of the largest Buddhist monasteries in Taiwan. Widely admired as an architectural masterpiece because of the mountain monastery's more modern look, the temple is only second to Fo Guang Shan's monastery in physical size and in the number of ordained disciples. The temple is situated in in Central Taiwan.
The temple follows traditional Chinese Ch'an, emphasizing on teachings based on sudden enlightenment and gradual cultivation. Chung Tai Chan Monastery now has established more than 90 meditation centers and branches in Taiwan and abroad, including six branches in the United States: three in Northern California--Buddha Gate Monastery in Lafayette, Chung Tai Zen Center in Sunnyvale and Pure Mind Zen Center in San Francisco, one in Southern California, one in the state of Texas and one in the state of Oklahoma.
The temple follows traditional Chinese Ch'an, emphasizing on teachings based on sudden enlightenment and gradual cultivation. Chung Tai Chan Monastery now has established more than 90 meditation centers and branches in Taiwan and abroad, including six branches in the United States: three in Northern California--Buddha Gate Monastery in Lafayette, Chung Tai Zen Center in Sunnyvale and Pure Mind Zen Center in San Francisco, one in Southern California, one in the state of Texas and one in the state of Oklahoma.
Bahai Faith in Taiwan
Bahá'í Faith in Taiwan
巴哈伊教, The Bahá'í Faith in Taiwan began after the religion entered areas of China and nearby Japan. The first Bahá'ís arrived in Taiwan in 1949 and the first of these to have become a Bahá'í was Mr. Jerome Chu in 1945 while visiting the United States. By May 1955 there were eighteen Bahá'ís in six localities across Taiwan. The first Local Spiritual Assembly in Taiwan was elected in in 1956. The National Spiritual Assembly was first elected in 1967 when there were local assemblies in Taipei, Tainan, Hualien, and Pingtung. Circa 2006 the Bahá'ís showed up in the national census with 16,000 members and 13 assemblies.
The Bahá'í Faith entered the region of the Far East, in Hong Kong, in the 1870's, during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith. Japan in 1912, there was no Bahá'í contact with the island until 1949. Between 1895 and 1945, until ending with World War II, and then there was the period of the Chinese Civil War.
Four Bahá'ís arrived in Taiwan in 1949 as part of the wave of refugees of Chiang Kai-Shek's retreat from the mainland: Jerone Chu, Yan Hsu-chang, Chien Tien-lee, and Gellan Wang. The first Bahá'í in Taiwan and arrived in Taiwan in 1954 at port Keelung where they found there was already a community of ten Bahá'ís spread among some of the cities of Taiwan: Taipei , Tainan , Tao-yuan, Tsoying and Chiayi. Mrs. Suleimani was from a Bahá'í family from who left in 1923. In December 1997 Bahá'ís were invited to participate in a local exhibit of religions. In 2001 Bahá'ís from Taiwan attended the opening of the . In 2004, the Taiwanese Baha'i community organizes 20 regular children's classes, attracting some 200 children.
巴哈伊教, The Bahá'í Faith in Taiwan began after the religion entered areas of China and nearby Japan. The first Bahá'ís arrived in Taiwan in 1949 and the first of these to have become a Bahá'í was Mr. Jerome Chu in 1945 while visiting the United States. By May 1955 there were eighteen Bahá'ís in six localities across Taiwan. The first Local Spiritual Assembly in Taiwan was elected in in 1956. The National Spiritual Assembly was first elected in 1967 when there were local assemblies in Taipei, Tainan, Hualien, and Pingtung. Circa 2006 the Bahá'ís showed up in the national census with 16,000 members and 13 assemblies.
Early days
Far East
The Bahá'í Faith entered the region of the Far East, in Hong Kong, in the 1870's, during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith. Japan in 1912, there was no Bahá'í contact with the island until 1949. Between 1895 and 1945, until ending with World War II, and then there was the period of the Chinese Civil War.
Beginning in Taiwan
Four Bahá'ís arrived in Taiwan in 1949 as part of the wave of refugees of Chiang Kai-Shek's retreat from the mainland: Jerone Chu, Yan Hsu-chang, Chien Tien-lee, and Gellan Wang. The first Bahá'í in Taiwan and arrived in Taiwan in 1954 at port Keelung where they found there was already a community of ten Bahá'ís spread among some of the cities of Taiwan: Taipei , Tainan , Tao-yuan, Tsoying and Chiayi. Mrs. Suleimani was from a Bahá'í family from who left in 1923. In December 1997 Bahá'ís were invited to participate in a local exhibit of religions. In 2001 Bahá'ís from Taiwan attended the opening of the . In 2004, the Taiwanese Baha'i community organizes 20 regular children's classes, attracting some 200 children.
Tiender
Tian De is a new religion which was founded in China in the 1920s. It is the reported religion of 0.9% of the Republic of China; it is also the basis of Lord of Universe Church which commands an additional 1.3%.
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